By Mark Mudge
Fasting - A Theoretical Overview
O ye who believe!Fasting is prescribed to you as it was prescribed to those before you, that ye may (learn) self restraint – Qur‘an S2: 183
Fasting as a spiritual discipline is an ancient practice. It predates Islam, being observed in varying forms by Judaism, Christianity and eastern religions.
The Qurash, a powerful tribe of Arab clans descended from Ishmael, gave special religious significance to Ramadhan, the ninth lunar month of their calendar. At the beginning of Ramadhan, many among the Qurash would make a pilgrimage to Mt. Hira where for a month they expressed their devotion and performed penance. At the end of the month, the devotees made their way to the Kaaba, the House of God built by Abraham, and performed the circumambulation seven times. It was during this pilgrimage that the Prophet Mohammed received the first revelation of the Qur‘an. It was also in the month of Ramadhan that Mohammed was victorious in the battle of Badr, a victory that was viewed as good overcoming evil. The fasting tradition was revived by Mohammed. Previously, the Arabs had voluntarily fasted for a period of time and this was then prescribed by Mohammed to fast ‘for days numbered‘ (Qur‘an S2:184). This was a severe form of fasting and for all these reasons, it was a natural progression that Ramadhan became institutionalized as the fasting month.
Ramadhan is the (month )in which was set down the Qur‘an, as a guide to mankind, also clear (signs) for guidance and judgement (between right and wrong). So every one of you who is present (at his home) during that month should spend it in fasting, - Qur‘an S2: 185
Fasting is one of the Five Pillars of Islam. The Five Pillars uphold the core of Islam and it is incumbent upon all Muslims to fulfill these five duties if they are able to do so. Briefly, the Five Pillars are:
tashahhud – the profession of unity. “There is no god but God, and Mohammed is the messenger of God”.
salat – the five-times-daily prayer, performed just before dawn, just after noon, in mid afternoon, just after sunset and after nightfall.
zakat – the compulsory annual charity, traditionally one-fortieth of a person‘s income.
sawm – the fast from before sunrise to sunset each day for the full lunar month of Ramadhan, and
hajj – the pilgrimage to the Kaaba in Mecca is expected of every Muslim who is able to do so. (Occhiogrosso 1996, pp.425-427)
To understand what fasting entails, I will draw on the writings of Al Ghazzali, a leading intellectual Sufi, often referred to as the ‘Authority of Islam‘ (Occhiogrosso 1996, p. 452). Al Ghazzali outlines six outward duties of fasting:
to observe the new moon to mark the beginning of Ramadhan,
to deliberately entertain the intention to fast the next day and each day,
to abstain from intentionally allowing any material substance, such as food, drink, snuff and enema to enter his body,
to abstain from sexual intercourse,
to abstain from deliberate sexual emission, either through sexual contact or through no sexual contact, and
to abstain from vomitting (the fast remains in tact if the vomitting is unintentional). (Faris 1983, pp. 17-22)
All adult Muslims are expected to fast from sunrise to sunset. Children, from the onset of puberty, are also required to fast. Prepubescent children are often encouraged to take part in the fast, or at least part of it, but this is not compulsory and is often an individual family choice. There are exceptions to those who are expected to fast, namely, menstruating women, the ill, the elderly, pregnant women, breast feeding women, travellers and those who perform hard labour.
Having established what fasting entails, I will turn to the purposes of fasting. Primarily, fasting as outlined in the Qur‘an and the hadith is an investment in the next life. Islam values well-being in both worlds. Those who will be happy and successful in the next world will have earned this through their accomplishments in the present world. Buitelaar (1993, p. 23) cites the narratives of Bukhari to demonstrate the importance of fasting and its correlation with Judgement Day. Some excerpts include:
fasting people are precious to God,
the sins of those who fast shall be forgiven and their good deeds will be multiplied by ten,
fasting protects one from the fires of hell and provides happiness twice; firstly, in the legitimate breaking of the fast and, and secondly, when standing in front of God on Judgement Day, and
there is a gate to heaven that through which only those who have fasted may enter.
Just as the Qur‘an promulgates fasting during Ramadhan, it is important for Muslims to do so with intention and motive. The validity of the fast is determined by the intention. The fast must ‘be wholly and solely for the pleasure, and in compliance with the commands, of God. Hence the celebrated saying of the Holy Prophet: “The acts are judged but by their intentions”‘ (Hamidullah, 1980 p. 10). If one abstains from eating and drinking for material motives, the purity of the fast is then compromised.
Purity plays a major role in fasting. The Arabic religious term for purity is tahara and it refers not only to purity but also the process of purification (Buitelaar 1993, p. 103). Purification must always precede prayers and fasting. There are rules laid down for removal of states of impurity, mainly involving rituals of ablution. These range from the washing of the body three times to rinsing of the head and limbs three times depending on the state of impurity. For example, sexual intercourse and menstruation require major ablution whilst contact with blood or body wastes requires only a minor ablution. Again, intention is paramount here. Purification rituals must be performed by thinking of God and reciting special prayers. During Ramadhan, extra precautionary measures such as cleaning the house thoroughly are also taken to ensure a state of purity.
It is not just purity in a physical sense that is important. As well as purity of the body, purity of the spirit and the heart are also extremely important during Ramadhan. As such, fasting manifests physical, spiritual and moral well-being.
Fasting in a physical sense has been recognised world wide as a form of purification. People fast for cleansing purposes, allowing the body to discharge waste and toxins. Muslims share the belief that fasting promotes health. ‘…the idea that fasting is good for the body is generally shared; it cleans the stomach and allows all vital organs to come to a rest. As a result, the body grows stronger‘ (Buitelaar 1993, p. 108). Hamidullah also argues that there are physical benefits to fasting but more importantly, that if there is no spiritual search or intention in the fast, then one does not benefit. It is the spiritual and physical development of those fasting, a blending of body and soul allowing them to ‘distinguish and discriminate between good and evil‘ (Hamidullah, 1980 p. 2).
Another major purpose of fasting is to bring oneself closer to God spiritually. Hamidullah (1980, p. 10) argues that by weakening the body through fasting, that one is strengthening the soul. He uses the analogy of pruning a tree so it may produce more fruit. By fasting, one‘s conscience becomes more aware of evil deeds and is more able to resist temptation, making one think of God, being obedient to God‘s will and becoming more charitable. Meditation on God should replace all sinful thoughts. To heighten the spiritual purity of the fast, Muslims are encouraged to hear or recite the Qur‘an at least once during the month of Ramadhan.
During the fasting month, it is also incumbent on Muslims to live their lives in a morally correct manner. Muslims are encouraged to abstain from one‘s own personal needs and to focus on the needs of others. This may be in the form of zakat, or any charitable action e.g. feeding the poor, that will bring one closer to God. Harbouring malice, slandering others, swearing and lying can all hinder the purity of the fast. Al Ghazzali, the Sufi mystic, writes:
‘… keep the tongue free from raving, lying, backbiting, tale-bearing, obscenity, abusive speech, wrangling, and hypocrisy, and to impose silence upon it. Furthermore it should be employed in the remembrance and glorification of God and engaged in the reading of the Qur‘an‘ (Faris 1983, p. 30).
Faris (1983, p. 13) argues that fasting belongs to God in two respects. Firstly, unlike all other forms of worship, fasting is concealed from others. ‘It stands alone as the only act of worship which is not seen by anyone except God‘. Secondly, it is a means of conquering Satan as Satan works through appetites and appetites are strengthened by eating and drinking. Fasting is then a way of blocking Satan‘s path and ‘the gateway to worship and a protection against the fires of hell‘ (Faris 1983, p. 15).
Fasting – A Practical Example
Having lived and worked in an Islamic country for the last seven years, I am going to draw on my observations, newspaper articles and discussions with colleagues (informants) to discuss the practicalities of fasting in Brunei Darussalam.
Brunei is an Islamic monarchy, with the Sultan as its ruler. The cabinet is made up of other members of the royal family and/or dignitaries. Islam is the official religion of the country and is intimately woven into the culture and lifestyle of the Brunei Malays. The Religious Council is responsible for advising the Sultan on matters relating to Islam as the Sultan is the head of the faith.
Brunei culture is built on three main principals, Melayu, Islam and Beraja (MIB), which translates as Malay, Islam and Monarchy. Brunei ‘s political system rests on the written Constitution and the tradition of Malay, Islam and Monarchy. These two facts dominate both the formal political life of Brunei and its ethos.
Brunei has a pluralist legal system, an adopted British Common Law system to deal with non-religious matters and a Syariah Court which co-exists with the Supreme Court and deals with Islamic laws. Syariah has several sources from which it draws its guiding principles. The primary element of syariah is the Qur‘an. The second element is the Sunna, the teachings of the Prophet Mohammad not explicitly found in the Qur‘an. The Sunna are a composite of the teachings of the Prophet and his works. The Sunna contain stories and anecdotes called hadith (Wiechman et al, 2005). The Ministry of Religious Affairs and its officers have the authority to act in a similar manner to the police force in religious matters that fall under their jurisdiction.
Every year, the first day of Ramadhan is marked on the calendar with an asterisk, denoting that Ramadhan will not begin on that day unless the new moon is sighted the previous evening. If the moon is not sighted, Ramadhan will not begin until the day after next. I have always been perplexed by this, knowing that a) the exact date of each new moon can be calculated scientifically and mathematically years in advance, and b) that Ramadhan had begun in other neighbouring countries but not Brunei . It was not until reading Al Ghazzali that the reason why became evident. In his outward duties and regulations of fasting he states:
‘the first duty is to watch the beginning of the month of Ramadhan and announce it at the observation of the new moon. But if the clouds should make the observation of the new moon impossible, then the length of Sha‘ban should be extended to thirty days. By observation we mean actual sighting of the new moon.‘ (Faris 1983, p. 16)
In Brunei , the religious authorities attempt to sight the moon on a hilltop near the capital city the night before Ramadhan is due to begin. The public are informed by 7:00 pm via television and radio whether the moon has been sighted and if Ramadhan is to begin. The same is true for marking the end of Ramadhan and announcing Hari Raya Aidil Fitri. This year the moon was not sighted and Ramadhan continued for an extra day.
Being an equatorial country, Brunei has almost an equal amount of daylight and darkness. The period of fasting is determined by the prayer times, which in turn, are determined by sunrise and sunset. Typically, the fast begins at 4:40 am and is broken at 6:11 pm. These times vary slightly over the month and also vary slightly for different places within the country. The public are informed of these exact times each day in the newspaper and also by cannon fire in the city centre. (See Appendices 1 & 2).
Normal daily life in Brunei undergoes substantial changes during Ramadhan. The school day is a fitting example to illustrate this. School starts half an hour later at 7:30 am and concludes at 11:40 am. Each period is shortened to fit into the compacted timetable. Recess time is the same but naturally the canteen is closed. No extra-curricula classes are held in the afternoon and physical education classes are cancelled. Attendance is generally down, and as Ramadhan draws to a close, attendance drops significantly again. This is often because the students are busily attending to preparations for the celebration of Hari Raya Aidil Fitri. During the month, students are often lethargic and tired, making effective teaching difficult. My informants tell me that afternoons are often spent resting and then preparing or buying food for the breaking of the fast. In the past, the month of Ramadhan was declared school holidays but constraints such as external exams have made this increasingly difficult.
All entertainment and sport activities are temporarily suspended during Ramadhan. It is general practice in government departments to also adopt a shortened working day. All government officers and staff work only six hours daily, as opposed to the seven and half hours daily of normal working hours outside Ramadhan. This practice is in contrast to what Hamidullah espouses in his study on fasting:
‘Normally the fast should not affect the daily avocations, and it should not be a pretext for neglecting any duties. Islam never approves, much less demands, of keeping vigil during the whole night and passing the day in sleep and indolence. Fast means a greater effort, to perform all the usual duties and something more,more prayers and more charity, and all this in the absence of food and drink.‘ (1980, p. 18)
In defense of this practice and of those teachers one sees slumped over their desks, the heat and humidity play a significant role in one‘s energy levels here. I personally think that depriving the body of water in such climatic conditions is dangerous, and I‘m sure many people decrease their activity in order to minimise their need for hydration and thus maintaining the fast.
The fast is broken by the iftar meal and the ways that this is done are varied. My informants have told me of their preference to share the breaking of the fast with their extended families, usually at their parents‘ houses. It is common practice in Brunei to purchase already prepared food from many of the specially set up Ramadhan food stalls called Gerai Ramadhan. This is perhaps a reflection on the general affluence of the society. By 6:00 pm, the roads are quiet as people are in place ready to break the fast.
The fast is broken with an odd number of dates and with some water. ‘The Messenger of Allah would break his fast with ripe dates before he would pray. If those were not available, he would eat dried dates. If those were not available, he would drink some water‘ (related by Abu Dawud and by Al-Hakim, Islam on Line). This is followed by prayers and then the meal is resumed. Despite having fasted all day, the meal should be of normal proportions. As Al Ghazzali states, ‘if on breaking his fast, he should eat an amount of food equivalent to what he would have eaten during both the daytime and the evening, he would reap no benefit from his fast‘ (Faris 1983, p. 35).
This is however not the only way that the fast is broken. Many people go out to restaurants where they can partake in a sungkai buffet, a specially prepared meal including dates and water and a range of foods. Others may be seen at fast food restaurants with their meal in front of them, still wrapped, waiting for the official fast breaking time. It is not common to see dates, water or prayers with these meals. Those who are working at the time e.g. shopkeepers, often eat what they can. Recently, I was on a short flight returning to Brunei where many people had food packages with them. An announcement was made that the official time for breaking the fast had arrived and the passengers opened their packages and began eating.
I questioned my informants on the most common way that the fast was broken. They both replied that their preferred way was to do so in the home with their extended families, where they could share the ritual of breaking the fast and prayers. They hinted that the way the fast was broken was dependent on the level of devoutness.
Each night during Ramadhan there are taradus prayers held at the Sultan‘s palace. The prayer ceremony is open to any male Muslim. Boys must wear the traditional dress and every participant is paid ten dollars for attendance. Needless to say the prayers are well attended and each year one hears stories of girls dressed in boys clothes taking part in the prayers. Payment for performing religious duties is not uncommon here. Students that I teach are often financially rewarded by their parents for fasting.
Muslims rise at least a half hour before dawn to take the sahur meal. In Brunei this must be completed by approximately 4:40 am which may attest to the level of tiredness of many.
As mentioned previously, Ramadhan is a time to be generous and to do good deeds. This is particularly evident in Brunei and the concept and practice of charity and generosity abounds. Al Bukhari recorded that Ibn ‘Abbas said, ‘The Prophet was the most generous of people, but he would be his most generous during Ramadan when he would meet with [the angel] Gabriel‘ (Azzam 2003). Every Muslim, rich or poor, is obliged to pay zakat by the end of Ramadhan. It is viewed as a purification process, defiling miserliness and promoting social awareness and action (Azzam 2003). Muslims pay the tithe at the mosque where a register of contributions is recorded.
It is not just individuals who are seen to be charitable during Ramadhan. Organizations, companies and the public in general are often seen to be helping those in need (see Appendices 6 and 7).
Public displays of eating, drinking or smoking by Muslims during the fasting hours are against syariah law in Brunei . Religious Enforcement Officers enforce fasting regulations thoroughly and every year there are reports in the newspaper of people illegally breaking the fast. Consequences are quite severe, incurring fines of several hundred dollars. Out of respect for Muslims, many non-Muslims tend to be discreet about eating, drinking and smoking in public during the fasting month.
In ensuring the true sense of the holy month, both syariah and common law are vigorously enforced during Ramadhan. Often there is the perception of ‘cleaning up‘ as Immigration officials and police round up illegal immigrants and crack down on illegal activities.
As Ramadhan draws to a close, I am reminded of the fever pitch that is reached in Christian countries with the onset of Christmas. Shops have extended trading hours and the roads are almost grid locked with shoppers preparing for Hari Raya. Festive lights akin to Christmas lights adorn most houses. Families are having new clothes made, often in matching material, in readiness for the rounds of visiting that they will undertake and also the visitors they will receive. My informants tell me that they are busy cooking and cleaning the house. A festive spirit is obvious.
In the last days of Ramadhan, praying becomes more intense. ‘Aisha reported that with the start of the last ten days of Ramadhan, Prophet Mohammed (pbuh) used to tighten his waist belt and used to pray all night, and used to keep his family awake for the prayers‘ (Bukhari reported in Borneo Bulletin 29 Oct 2005). This is the seeking of Lailatul-Qadr where the sins of those who pray are forgiven. This becomes a particularly trying time for Muslims as fasting is compounded by sleep deprivation and the preparations for Hari Raya.
I feel privileged to have witnessed the fasting month and all that it entails, and to have been able to share first hand experiences with my two informants. By having a greater understanding of the reasons behind fasting, I have developed a greater respect for those who are fasting and for a society that focuses on those less fortunate, albeit for one month of the year. As with all religions, there are degrees of devoutness and that fasting and commitment to it happens to different degrees here in Brunei.
References:
Azzam, M. 2003, Ramadan‘s Special Charity – Zakat al-Fitr [Online, accessed 5 Nov. 2005]. URL: http://www.islamonline.net/english/index.shtml
Buitelaar, M. 1993, Fasting and Feasting in Morocco - Women‘s Participation in Ramadan, Oxford: Berg, United Kingdom .
Faris, N.A. 1983, The Mysteries of Fasting, being a translation with notes of The Kitab Asrar al-Sawm of Al-Ghazzali‘s ‘Ihya Ulum al-Din‘, Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, Lahore.
Hamidullah, M. 1980, Why Fast? A spiritual and temporal study of fast in Islam, Apex Book Concern, Luton.
Occhiogrosso, P. 1996, The Joy of Sects- A Spirited Guide to the World‘s Religious Traditions, Doubleday, New York.
Wiechman, D.J., Kendall, J.D., & Azarian, M.K. 2005, Shariah Islamic Law, [Online, accessed 2 Nov. 2005]. URL: http://www.shariah.net/
Excerpts from the Quran were accessed from the following URL over various dates: http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html
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Mark Mudge is a Theology Student at Australian Catholic University
Source: dlibrary.acu.edu.au
